Speech Audiometry Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Speech Audiometry - Essay Example Use of hearing aids of many types and formats can bring normalcy and comfort to patient short fallings relates to listening and recognition of words which may result in improvement of professional capabilities, understanding relationships with others, self-confidence and self-satisfaction. Many researches were conducted in past and still going on for effective detection of primary listening disabilities. Scientists study speech as auditory signal to test new equipment. Since the advent of speech audiometry, it has helped in differentiating hearing aids from one another and so has come to be known as the basic assessment of the ability of hearing. Due to the significance and accuracy of its results; it has also been considered as the foundation in the hearing aid evaluation of the majority of speech. Hence, speech audiometry became the centre of evaluation in audiology and the primary methods used now are the same that were used in the 1920's. The research for speech audiometry has not only been vastly useful but also is revolutionary in regard to the technological advances. Communication ability of a person is considered very important thus, continual research on the subject has been going on for the past 60 years and more. The credit not only goes to the scientists but even to the military investigators, industrial development and clinical audiology researchers. In rel History: In relation to the hearing aid fitting procedure, speech audiometry serves its purpose through assessing the effect of occlusion, analysis of intelligibility, evaluation of quality, and degree of loudness. Comparative hearing aid assessments also used speech audiometry as the main evaluation of performance. In the late 1940s, speech testing started being used for evaluating and differentiating hearing aids due to its advancement speech audiometry quickly became the preferred method to evaluate real-ear hearing aid performance. Speech testing assesses how amply speech is understood. Surveys conducted in the 1970s show that almost 85% of audiologists were using speech testing when fitting hearing aid. But after almost 30 years it was realized that these methods were not reliable enough to secure investment by selecting hearing aids in a large amount of clinical time. As the 1980s rolled on, use of speech audiometry in hearing aid fittings dropped to an exceptionally low level. All this was caused because it was seen that hearing aid dispensing is a much less time consuming process than speech testing and fitting approaches were the ones comprising of functional gain rather than speech audiometry. It also lacked the sensitivity to distinguish small differences on an individual basis in hearing aid performance. The benefits received were limited in regard to the time taken to get to them. Due to the technological advancement of that time, the industry started using in-the-ear hearing aid fittings as they effectively eradicated the comparative hearing aid evaluation approach altogether. Recent Research: Eventually in the 1990s, speech testing was on the whole, rarely used for hearing aid differentiation and aided speech testing was

Principles Of American Bible Society Research Paper

Principles Of American Bible Society - Research Paper Example The virtues are not values like honesty or loyalty that one recites in grade school. These virtues mentioned in Galatians are the hallmarks of maturity that one should seek when looking for a spiritual mentor. For one, the aforementioned virtues are not deliberately adopted by a person to become his personal virtue since it is the Spirit that implants these virtues within a person. Looking at the background of these verses, these virtues were listed to serves as concrete examples that contrasts the acts of the flesh such as â€Å"envyings, murders, drunkenness, revellings† (Gal.5:21). It is also significant to state that â€Å"the flesh lusteth against the Spirit† (v.17). which explains that since people are made of flesh, it is natural for humans to lust for vices like wine, gossip, money, or illicit sex. But, when a person has spiritually matured, he has struggled over this vices and starts exhibiting the virtues mentioned. What makes these virtues grow? Walking in faith with God makes these virtues thrive within ourselves. Therefore, when one is a matured Christian he or she manifests the virtues in his way of life. It is conclusive to say then that a Christian who has attained spiritual maturity will reflect these virtues in his daily affairs whether it be at work, or at leisure time. Among the virtues that were listed as fruits of the Spirit, I chose love, joy, and peace. I consider them as hallmarks of maturity since they are the basic foundation of all virtues yet they are the hardest to cultivate when one does not walk in God’s word. The first virtue is love which is known as â€Å"agape† in Greek. This love2 is as â€Å"agape† refers to brotherly love that should exhibit mercy and benevolence.

Social Identity Theory And Self Categorisation Theory Sociology Essay

Social Identity Theory And Self Categorisation Theory Sociology Essay Social Identity Theory was established by Tajfel and Turner with the aim of trying to understand the psychological basis of intergroup discrimination. Tajfel and Turner (1979) tried to identify conditions which would lead members of a specific social group to behave in a biased matter towards an out-group, in favour of the in-group which they were a member of. It is seen as a discursive approach. The main principle of Social Identity Theory is that people often categorise and define themselves and others into a number of different social groups and strive to have their group valued more highly than other groups (Tajfel Turner, 1985). Consistent with Tajfel and Turners (1985) claim, it is believed, by other psychologists, that social identities are formed to boost self-esteem and encourage a sense of certainty (McGregor, Reeshama and So-Jin, 2008). To explain the phenomenon of how individuals evaluate themselves and others as part of an in-group or an out-group, Social Identity Theor y identifies three mental concepts: social categorisation, social identification and social comparison (TaÃ…Å ¸demir, 2011). Social categorisation relates to individuals assigning people to social categories in order to understand and identify them (Tajfel Turner, 1979). This results in the world being divided into them and us, or an in-group and an out-group. In the second concept, social identification, people adopt the identity of the social group they have categorised themselves into. This also involves developing an emotional attachment to ones identification with the group and self-esteem will be closely linked to group membership (Tajfel Turner, 1979). The final concept, social comparison, relates to an individual comparing the group they identify with with other groups. To retain ones self-esteem, their group must be viewed in a more positive light than other groups (Tajfel Turner, 1979). Several psychological studies have supported the fact that individuals create so cial categories in order to boost self-esteem. An example of this being when individuals learn that their social group is unacceptable to society, they tend to perceive the out-group as unacceptable as well (Ford Tonander, 1998). Haslam (2001) has identified two types of strategies individuals use to boost their groups status: social conflict and social creativity. Social conflict refers to the in-group undermining the social status of the out-group. This can be done in a violent manner or by way of protests. Social creativity relates to the in-group emphasising group features which they flourish on, by way of advertising these strengths. Haslam (2001) argues that when the in-group does not feel at risk and feel their status is largely secure they will engage in social creativity rather than social conflict. However, when members of the in-group feel threatened they will readily engage in social conflict. A core principle of Social Identity Theory is that ones social identity is no t fixed and cannot predict ones behaviour. Instead, the context and the in-groups salience in the context decides which aspect of an individuals identity is influential in a situation. According to Social Identity Theory, individuals are more inclined to identify with a certain social group if they feel uncertain. Support for this claim comes from McGregor, Reeshma and So-Jin (2008). In their study, participants were required to describe personal conflicts which were caused by unresolved personal problems (uncertainty task). In an attempt to assess out-group derogation, Canadian participants read statements which were critical of Canada, written by a foreign person. The extent to which the Canadian participants disliked and disagreed with the foreigners statement was measured, providing an index of out-group derogation. Additionally, each participant completed a measure of structure requirement. McGregor, Reeshma and So-Jin (2008) found that individuals who sought structure and clar ity were more likely to show out-group derogation after completing the uncertainty task. However, this research used participants from a Western country the same results may not have been generated if Eastern participants took part in the study. The assumptions from these results cannot be generalised to people from different cultures. It can be argued that Social Identity Theory is effective in its claim that people have a biased perception of their own social group compared to other groups, that is, explaining in-group bias. Evidence of this can be seen in the results of Mullen, Brown and Smiths (1992) study into the in-group bias hypothesis. Further support of the claim that identity processes underlie the in-group bias is a report illustrating that members of a social group have higher self-esteem after engaging in discriminatory behaviour (Rubin Hewstone, 1998). Rubin and Hewstone (1998) demonstrate that people show an intergroup distinction to feel good about themselves and the social group which they identify with (Brown, 2000). Brown, Maras, Masser, Vivian and Hewstone (2001) observed that English passengers on a ferry had been refused travel by the actions of French fishermen the out-group and so displayed generally less favourable attitudes towards French people. This supports Social Identity Theorys social comparison concept, in that the English passengers identified so strongly with their national group that they viewed the French in a negative light which in turn, resulted in them retaining their self-esteem. However, Social Identity Theory does have a number of issues which have proved problematic when trying to account for group influence. The theory assumes that a positive social identity is based on positive intergroup comparisons (Brown, 2000). It does make sense to assume that there should be a positive correlation between the strength of group identification and the level of in-group bias. This hypothesis has been tested over the years and still remains of interest to psychologists worldwide (Brown, 2000). Subsequent psychological studies investigating this correlation have shown little support for Social Identity Theory. According to Brown (2000), 14 studies were analysed and the overall correlation between group identification and in-group bias was +0.08, and while 64% of correlations were positive, the mean correlation was not very strong (+0.24). It can be argued, however, that this correlation hypothesis was not actually stated by Tajfel and Turner (1979) when they were develo ping the Social Identity Theory. It is clear from Social Identity Theory that people are motivated to have an in-group bias by the need to see themselves, and the group they identify, within a positive light. Thus, it can be assumed there is a causal link between intergroup distinction and self-esteem. Abrams and Hogg (1988) summarised this concept positive in-group differentiation leads to increased self-esteem and people with low self-esteem show more differentiation in order to boost levels of self-esteem. Social Identity Theory is essentially a theory relating to group differentiation, that is, how members of a specific in-group make this group distinctive from, and better than, an out-group. Therefore, groups which see themselves as similar should be keen to show intergroup differentiation (Brown, 1984). This hypothesis has been tested vigorously over the years with different results. Some studies have generated results which contradict Social Identity Theorys hypothesis Jett en, Spears and Manstead (1996) found that groups that viewed themselves to hold similar attitudes and equivalent status showed more intergroup attraction and less bias then dissimilar groups (Brown, 2000). However, some studies support Social Identity Theory as they have found that intergroup similarity does lead to intergroup differentiation especially if both groups are extremely similar (White Langer, 1999). The concept of social identity as described by Social Identity Theory could be altered by way of having a greater greater acknowledgement of the diversity of social groups that can represent ones social identity. Self-Categorisation Theory also focuses on the concept of intergroup differentiation as a function of identity (TaÃ…Å ¸demir, 2011). Self-Categorisation Theory is seen as a cognitive theory of behaviour within intergroup contexts and offers explanations about the cognitive processes underlying an individuals self-categorisation and intergroup differentiation processes (Turner, 1999). The theory is seen to be a more elaborate, extended version of the original Social Identity Theory (TaÃ…Å ¸demir, 2011). Turner et al. (1987) argue that Self-Categorisation Theory deals with the social-cognitive basis of intergroup behaviour. Self-Categorisation Theory explains how people form a self-identity in terms of the social categories which they belong to. This also leads to people discriminating between their own category members and people in other categories. The meta-contrast principle explains this process. The meta-contrast principle explains that any number of individuals in a cert ain situation are likely to categorise themselves as a social group when they view differences amongst each other less than the differences between themselves and others in the same situation (Turner, 1985). For that reason, when inter-group differences are more stark than intra-group differences (high meta-contrast ratio), it is believed that people define themselves based on their membership of social groups and they differentiate between the in-group and out-group (Turner, Oakes, Haslam McGarty, 1994). Self-Categorisation Theory states that when individuals identify with a social group, they experience depersonalisation. That is, they perceive every member of their group as interchangeable on a certain level (Turner et al., 1957). Self-categorisation cognitively assimilates the individual to the in-group prototype and so depersonalises self-conception (Hogg and Terry, 2001). Therefore, it is assumed that each group member, including the individual themselves, share the same valu es and morals and so they tend to adhere to group norms (Hogg and Reid, 2006). According to Hogg and Terry (2001), this transformation of self-identity is the process which underlies group phenomena as it brings self-identification in line with the relevant in-group prototype in a certain context. Many psychologists, such as Simon (2004) and Deaux (1993) have challenged this assumption of depersonalisation. A study was conducted by Swann, Gomez, Seyle, Morales and Huici (200) who found a contradiction to the assumption of depersonalisation. In their study, individuals who felt their personal and social identities were linked did not adhere to the norms of the in-group. Instead, they engaged in rebellious behaviour to protect their group even when their identity was threatened. Self-Categorisation Theory promotes the idea that when people self-categorise themselves, they tend to think of themselves more as a member of a social group, rather than as individuals. This includes them bel ieving that they share the same characteristics associated with their group and they behave in ways that they feel members of their group should act. This process is called self-stereotyping (Mackie, Smith and Ray, 2008). As result of this, self-categorisation increases similarity in the in-group. This is because every member of the social group takes on attributes which are seen as characteristic of the group and so every member develops identical qualities. One could argue, therefore, that Self-Categorisation Theory provides an insight into the fact that the group has become part of ones self. Support of this comes from a study by Smith and Henry (1996) who found that group members perceive themselves as like their social group. Although both theories, Self Identity Theory and Self-Categorisation Theory, are different, one could ague that they are similar to an extent. This is because both theories explore how identities are internalised and are used by individuals to define themselves. However, there are several differences between Social Identity Theory and Self-Categorisation Theory and the way in which they account for group influence. Self-Categorisation Theory focuses more on the cognitive processes of categorisation in a social context whereas Social Identity Theory offers a more discursive approach. Discursive psychologists have been critical of Social Identity Theory over the years. They criticise the theorys assumption that group conflict and differentiation is caused by a worldwide psychological process. Additionally, they feel that the theory is limited as it does not have ecological validity since much of the research into the theory is conducted in Western cultures. There has been an intercultu ral study conducted by Wetherell (1996) who found that children who come from other cultural backgrounds do not discriminate between groups, unlike North American children. Self-Categorisation Theory does not place as much emphasis on the role of self-esteem, unlike Social Identity Theory. Social Identity Theory emphasises the process of self-categorisation into a group and Self-Categorisation Theory emphasises the process of self-stereotyping and identifying oneself based on a social group. According to Taylor and Moghaddam (1994), Self-Categorisation Theory ignores socio-structural factors and is devoid of the passion involved in real-life conflicts. The theory describes humans in the image of thinking machines. Therefore, one contrast between Social Identity Theory and Self-Categorisation Theory is that the latter can be criticised for not paying enough attention to motivational and affective issues. One flaw of Self-Categorisation Theory is that it concentrates on identity forma tion in adults but no attention has been given to the development of identity in infants. There has however been research into this, using the main principles of Self-Categorisation Theory and applying it to children (Barrett, Wilson and Lyons, 1999). One could therefore argue that Self-Categorisation Theory is not efficient when it comes to explaining group influence on children. A success of Social Identity Theory is that other psychologists have used its principles in an attempt to explain extremist social movements. Reicher, Haslam and Rath (2008) explained how the ideas promoted by Social Identity Theory were able to explain Nazism. In conclusion, it is clear that both theories share similarities, but there are also a number of differences between the two. Self-Categorisation Theory has a more cognitive approach to group influence whereas Social Identity Theory has a more discursive approach. Further research into Social Identity Theory could involve people from Eastern countries to give the theory more ecological validity as currently, the majority of studies have used Western participants. Self-categorisation theory focuses too much on the formation of identity and group influence in adults and so more research could be done on children to see if the same assumptions apply.

The Awakening Essay -- essays research papers

In the Awakening, by Kate Chopin, Edna Pontellier is a married woman with children. However many of her actions seem like those of a child. In fact, Edna Pontelliers ¡Ã‚ ¦ life is an irony, in that her immaturity allows her to mature. Throughout this novel, there are many examples of this because Edna is continuously searching for herself in the novel. One example of how Edna ¡Ã‚ ¦s immaturity allows her to mature is when she starts to cry when LeÆ’Vonce, her husband, says she is not a good mother.  ¡Ã‚ §He reproached his wife with her inattention, her habitual neglect of the children. If it was not a mother ¡Ã‚ ¦s place to look after children, whose on earth was it? ¡Ã‚ ¨(13). Edna, instead of telling her husband that she had taken care of her children, began to cry like a baby after her husband reprimanded her.  ¡Ã‚ §Mrs. Pontellier was by that time thoroughly awake. She began to cry a little ¡Kshe thrust her face, steaming and wet, into the bend of her arm, and she went on crying there, not caring any longer to dry her face, her eyes, her arms, ¡Ã‚ ¨(13,14). These tears made Edna look as if she was still a child and that she is tired of being treated as a child by her husband. These tears also showed her she did not like where she was, a sign of maturity. Her tears symbolize her first awakening. Although the next morning, after Edna had cried the night before had to go and say good-bye to her husband because he was leaving on a business trip. Edna acted immaturely around him again when he gave her half the money he won the night before.  ¡Ã‚ §Ã‚ ¡Ã‚ ¥It will buy a handsome wedding present for Sister Janet! ¡Ã‚ ¦ she exclaimed, smoothing out the bills as she counted them one by one, ¡Ã‚ ¨(15). Edna is spoiled by all of her husbands money. Another example of how Edna ¡Ã‚ ¦s immaturity allows her to mature is when Edna swam like a baby when she went swimming for the first time, and she had over estimated her power.  ¡Ã‚ §Once she turned and looked toward the shore, toward the people she had left there. She had not gone any great distance ¡Kshe made no mention of her encounter with death and her flash of terror, except to say to her husband,  ¡Ã‚ ¥I thought I should have perished out there alone. ¡Ã‚ ¦  ¡Ã‚ ¥You were not so very far, my dear; I was watching you. ¡Ã‚ ¦Ã‚ ¡Ã‚ ¨(48). This shows the reader that Edna is still like a baby in that her husband was watching her while she was swimming. Edna had no idea that she could even... ...g, and it was late ¡Khe filled his match safe, but did not light his cigarette until he left her, after she had expressed her willingness to go to the races with him again, ¡Ã‚ ¨ (125). By her staying with Arobin, and defying her husbands ¡Ã‚ ¦ wishes, which is immature, she is in a way maturing  ¡V this demonstrates the irony in Edna ¡Ã‚ ¦s life, to be mature she must first be immature. She is learning to make decisions on her own.  ¡Ã‚ §Madame Lebrun might have enjoyed the outgoing, but for some reason Edna did not want her. So they went alone, she and Arobin, ¡Ã‚ ¨ (127). Again Edna is acting immaturely, and foolishly by going with Arobin alone, which will help her to mature. In conclusion, for Edna Pontellier to mature, she had to first act immaturely which made Edna ¡Ã‚ ¦s life a complete paradox, continually contradicting itself.  ¡Ã‚ §The voice of the sea is seductive, never ceasing, whispering, clamoring, murmuring, inviting the soul to wander in abysses of solitude ¡Kthe water was deep, but she lifted her white body and reached out with a long, sweeping stroke. The touch of the sea is sensuous, enfolding the body in its soft, close embrace, ¡Ã‚ ¨(189). Edna ended her life in the sea, her final awakening.

Qualitative research Essay

PREPARING A CASE STUDY: A Guide for Designing and Conducting a Case Study for Evaluation Input By Palena Neale, PhD, Senior Evaluation Associate Shyam Thapa, PhD, Senior Monitoring and Evaluation Advisor Carolyn Boyce, MA, Evaluation Associate May 2006 P AT H F I N D E R I N T E R N AT I O N A L T O O L S E R I E S Monitoring and Evaluation – 1 PREPARING A CASE STUDY: A Guide for Designing and Conducting a Case Study for Evaluation Input By Palena Neale, PhD, Senior Evaluation Associate Shyam Thapa, PhD, Senior Monitoring and Evaluation Advisor Carolyn Boyce, MA, Evaluation Associate. May 2006 Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank the following Pathfinder employees and partners for their technical inputs into this document: Emmanuel Boadi (Pathfinder/Ghana), Anne Palmer (Futures Group International), Ugo Daniels (African Youth Alliance (AYA)), Veronique Dupont (Pathfinder/Extending Service Delivery (ESD)), Cathy Solter, Lauren Dunnington, and Shannon Pryor (Pathfinder headquarters). Jenny Wilder and Mary Burket are also thanked for their inputs and assistance in editing and producing this document. 2 PATHFINDER INTERNATIONAL: WRITING A CASE STUDY. What is a Case Study? A case study is a story about something unique, special, or interesting—stories can be about individuals, organizations, processes, programs, neighborhoods, institutions, and even events. 1 The case study gives the story behind the result by capturing what happened to bring it about, and can be a good opportunity to highlight a project’s success, or to bring attention to a particular challenge or difficulty in a project. Cases2 might be selected because they are highly effective, not effective, representative, typical, or of special interest. A few examples of case study topics are provided below—the case studies would describe what happened when, to whom, and with what consequences in each case. Case Study Examples Shifting Attitudes of Youth-Serving Service Providers Uniqueness/Point of Interest Your program was able to change service providers’ attitudes towards dealing with Adolescent Sexual and Reproductive Health (ASRH) needs in an environment where provider’s attitudes have been a barrier to young people accessing SRH services. Your program was effective in introducing YFS to the MOH and in institutionalizing an YFS curriculum in a setting where the MOH did not provide YFS. Your program was able to integrate HIV prevention in several FBO service delivery points in an environment that normally does not include or welcome HIV prevention activities. Your program built the leadership capacity of youth to advocate, promote, and participate in decision making around ASRH. This transpired in a setting that did not include ASRH on the agenda nor encourage youth participation in general or in decision making in particular. Integrating Youth-Friendly Services (YFS) in the Ministry of Health (MOH) Integrating HIV Prevention in Faith-Based Organization (FBO) Health Services Delivery. Developing Youth Leadership in Tanzania 1 2 Yin, Robert K. (2003). Case Study Research: Design and Methods. Thousand Oakds: Sage Publications. Case refers to the unit of analysis or topic chosen for study (i. e. , the individual, organization, or program). PATHFINDER INTERNATIONAL: WRITING A CASE STUDY 3 When is a Case Study Appropriate? Case studies are appropriate when there is a unique or interesting story to be told. Case studies are often used to provide context to other data (such as outcome data), offering a more complete picture of what happened in the program and why. What are the Advantages and Limitations of a Case Study? The primary advantage of a case study is that it provides much more detailed information than what is available through other methods, such as surveys. Case studies also allow one to present data collected from multiple methods (i. e. , surveys, interviews, document review, and observation) to provide the complete story. There are a few limitations and pitfalls however, each of which is described below. Can be lengthy: Because they provide detailed information about the case in narrative form, it may be difficult to hold a reader’s interest if too lengthy. In writing the case study, care should be taken to provide the rich information in a digestible manner. Concern that case studies lack rigor: Case studies have been viewed in the evaluation and research fields as less rigorous than surveys or other methods. Reasons for this include the fact that qualitative research in general is still considered unscientific by some and in many cases, case study researchers have not been systematic in their data collection or have allowed bias in their findings. In conducting and writing case studies, all involved should use care in being systematic in their data collection and take steps to ensure validity3 and reliability4 in the study. Not generalizable: A common complaint about case studies is that it is difficult to generalize from one case to another. But case studies have also been prone to overgeneralization, which comes from selecting a few examples and assuming without evidence that they are typical or representative of the population. Yin, a prominent researcher, advises case study analysts to generalize findings to theories, as a scientist generalizes from experimental results to theories. 5 3 4 Validity refers to the degree to which a study accurately reflects or assesses the specific concept that the researcher is attempting to measure. Reliability is the extent to which an experiment, test, or any measuring procedure yields the same result on repeated trials. 5 Yin, Robert K. (2003). Case Study Research: Design and Methods. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications. 4 PATHFINDER INTERNATIONAL: WRITING A CASE STUDY. What is the Process for Conducting a Case Study? The process for conducting case study research follows the same general process as is followed for other research: plan, collect data, analyze data, and disseminate findings. More detailed steps are given below. 1. Plan †¢ Identify stakeholders who will be involved. †¢ Brainstorm a case study topic, considering types of cases and why they are unique or of interest. †¢ Identify what information is needed and from whom (see â€Å"What are Potential Sources of Information? † and â€Å"What are the Elements of a Case Study? †). †¢ Identify any documents needed for review. †¢ List stakeholders to be interviewed or surveyed (national, facility, and beneficiary levels) and determine sample if necessary. †¢ Ensure research will follow international and national ethical research standards, including review by ethical research committees. For more information, please see the International Ethical Guidelines for Biomedical Research Involving Human Subjects, available at http://www. cioms. ch/frame_guidelines_nov_2002. htm. 2. Develop Instruments †¢ Develop interview/survey protocols—the rules that guide the administration and implementation of the interview/survey. Put simply, these are the instructions that are followed to ensure consistency across interviews/surveys, and thus increase the reliability of the findings. The following instructions for the should be included in the protocol: †¢ What to say to interviewees when setting up the interview/survey; †¢ What to say to interviewees when beginning the interview/survey, including ensuring informed consent of the respondent (see Appendix 1 for an example); †¢ What to say to respondent in concluding the interview; †¢ What to do during the interview (Example: Take notes? Audiotape? Both?); and †¢ What to do following the interview (Example: Fill in notes? Check audiotape for clarity? Summarize key information for each? Submit written findings? ). †¢ Develop an interview guide/survey that lists the questions or issues to be explored and includes an informed consent form. Please note that you will likely need interview guides/surveys for each group of stakeholders, as questions may differ. †¢ Where necessary, translate guides into local languages and test translation. PATHFINDER INTERNATIONAL: WRITING A CASE STUDY 5 3. Train Data Collectors †¢ Identify and train data collectors (if necessary). (See â€Å"Training Tips for Data Collectors†6. ) Where necessary, use interviewers that speak the local language. Training Tips for Data Collectors Staff, youth program participants, or professional interviewers may be involved in data collection. Regardless of what experience data collectors have, training should include: †¢ An introduction to the evaluation objectives, †¢ A review of data collection techniques, †¢ A thorough review of the data collection items and instruments, †¢ Practice in the use of the instruments, †¢ Skill-building exercises on interviewing and interpersonal communication, and †¢ Discussion of ethical issues. 4. Collect Data †¢ Gather all relevant documents. †¢ Set up interviews/surveys with stakeholders (be sure to explain the purpose, why the stakeholder has been chosen, and the expected duration). †¢ Seek informed consent of each respondent (written or documented oral). Re-explain purpose of interview, why the stakeholder has been chosen, expected duration of, whether and how the information will be kept confidential, and the use of a note taker/tape recorder. †¢ If the respondent has consented, conduct the interview/survey. 5. Analyze Data †¢ Review all relevant documents. †¢ Review all interview/survey data. 6. Disseminate Findings †¢ Write report (see â€Å"What are the Elements of a Case Study? †). †¢ Solicit feedback. †¢ Revise †¢ Disseminate 6 Adamchak, S. , et. al. (2000). A Guide to Monitoring and Evaluating Adolescent Reproductive Health Programs. Available at http://www. pathfind. org/site/PageServer? pagename=Publications_FOCUS_Guides_and_Tools. 6 PATHFINDER INTERNATIONAL: WRITING A CASE STUDY What are Potential Sources of Information? Case studies typically rely on multiple sources of information and methods to provide as complete a picture as possible. Information sources could include: †¢ Project documents (including meeting minutes) †¢ Project reports, including quarterly reports, midterm reviews †¢ Monitoring visits †¢ Mystery client reports †¢ Facility assessment reports †¢ Interviews †¢ Questionnaire/survey results †¢ Evaluation reports †¢ Observation †¢ Other What are the Elements of a Case Study? Case studies do not have set elements that need to be included; the elements of each will vary depending on the case or story chosen, the data collected, and the purpose (for example, to illustrate a best case versus a typical case). However, case studies typically describe a program or intervention put in place to address a particular problem. Therefore, we provide the following elements and example on which you might draw: 1. The Problem i. Identify the problem ii. Explain why the problem is important iii. How was the problem identified? iv. Was the process for identifying the problem effective? 2. Steps taken to address the problem 3. Results 4. Challenges and how they were met 5. Beyond Results 6. Lessons Learned. PATHFINDER INTERNATIONAL: WRITING A CASE STUDY 7 1. The Problem: It is essential to identify what the problem was. Specifically: i. Identify the problem. For example, certain FBO leadership was opposed to including HIV prevention activities within their programming. Specifically, they felt that prevention activities would promote sex among youth and thereby increase the incidence of HIV. In addition, the FBO felt that the promotion of condoms as a form of prevention was morally wrong. ii. Explain why the problem is important. Following the same example, to provide a comprehensive response to HIV/AIDS, prevention activities are an important part of HIV programming, in addition to care and support. Addressing moral and religious concerns and objections of FBO leaders in order to incorporate this component greatly expands the prevention effort and offers a greater breadth and depth in HIV programming. iii. How was the problem identified? It is likely that program staff will have an idea of what general problems exist. For example, YFS is not integrated in the MOH, FBOs do not include prevention activities, youth involvement does not occur, etc. What was likely missing and required exploration were the details around this general problem. In the case of working with FBOs, an initial project planning meeting was held to discuss the specifics behind the problem. It was revealed during this process that certain FBOs who conducted care and support activities did not offer prevention activities, specifically condom promotion. The primary reason given was religious objections; another reason identified but not explicitly stated was stigma. iv. Was the process for identifying the problem effective? After additional one-on-one discussions with FBO leaders, it was determined that the leaders had concerns based on moral and religious grounds regarding prevention efforts, particularly promoting condoms. Furthermore, discussions revealed that a number of leaders had limited and/or erroneous information regarding transmission and prevention options. 8 PATHFINDER INTERNATIONAL: WRITING A CASE STUDY 2. Steps Undertaken to Address the Problem: What was done (activities/ interventions/ inputs), where, by whom, for whom? In the case of integrating prevention in FBOs, an illustrative outline of steps undertaken to address the problem is given below: What was done? Phase 1: Sensitization Sensitization of leadership: activities included reviewing FBO policies and bylaws by program staff in order to demonstrate to leadership that there were no constitutional objections to prevention activities. Project staff engaged liberal FBO leaders to supply quotes from the Bible to build their evidence-based argument to convince other leaders that there was in fact no biblical basis for the preclusion of prevention activities. Sensitization of facility managers: meet with managers to discuss leadership approval and present evidence-based arguments on why integration activities can be included. Sensitization of community: work with groups to explain that these activities have been approved by the FBO leadership and where they can go to receive services. Phase 2: Integration Facility assessments Selected facilities Project Staff, FBO representatives Local Implementing Partners (IPs) Project Staff, Facility Managers Contractor FBOs, Project Staff Facility Staff District/ National Project Staff FBO leaders Where? By Whom? For Whom? Facilities Project Staff Facility Managers Community catchment areas Project Staff Community members Training of service providers Selected facilities Conduct staff orientations Facilities Facility Staff Physical infrastructure improved Phase 3: Outreach Identify peers that you want to work with Training Provide Tools Supervision Phase 4: M&E Reassessments Facilities Facility Selected facilities Facilities Facility Staff IPs Project Peer supervisors Beneficiaries Peers Peers Peers Sample of selected facilities Project Staff, Facility Management, Youth Trained mystery clients Project Staff, Peer Supervisors. Facility, Project Staff Mystery client interviews Monitoring visits Facilities Facilities, Peers Facility staff, Project Staff PATHFINDER INTERNATIONAL: WRITING A CASE STUDY 9 3. Results: What were the results of your intervention, particularly the significant or unique results? For example: your activities resulted in the FBO including HIV prevention activities in their programming, which contributed to an increase in condom distribution. Or, your activities resulted in youth-serving service providers adopting a youth-friendly attitude which contributed to improved services and an increase in youth visits. Church leadership may have made a commitment and modified policies to include ASRH activities, leadership talking about the issues publicly. Facility managers may make financial commitments to refurbishments, training, etc. 4. Challenges and how they were met: This focuses on what challenges or difficulties you encountered and what you did to overcome them. One of the challenges in working with FBOs may have been dealing with Catholic FBOs and your response could have been to negotiate with them to include certain prevention activities like abstinence, and/or providing a referral point to youth who may want to get information about condoms. Another possible challenge is that not all FBOs who you had hoped to work with were willing to come on board and this required additional attention. 5. Beyond Results: Are the results mentioned above sustainable? Why or why not? For example, an integrated approach to programming (which included a strong policy and advocacy component) created an enabling policy environment with strong stakeholder support that can be nurtured and leveraged beyond the project duration. 6. Lessons Learned: What lessons were learned: programmatic, technical, financial, process, etc.? For example, the experience showed that it was imperative for project staff to have a very solid understanding of government policies to speak to these issues with key stakeholders. In addition, it was important to have a good understanding of the various religious beliefs in addition to their respective policies and by-laws for developing and delivering advocacy arguments. How are Case Studies Presented? Case studies are flexible in that they can be presented in a number of ways—there is no specific format to follow. However, like all evaluation results, justification and methodology of the study should be provided, as well as any supporting information (i. e. , copies of instruments and guides used in the study). Case studies may stand alone or be included in a larger evaluation report. If presented as a stand-alone report, the following report outline is suggested: 1. Introduction and Justification 2. Methodology a. How was the process carried out? (Describe the process of selecting the case and data collection sources, as well as how data was collected. ) b. What assumptions are there (if any)? 10 PATHFINDER INTERNATIONAL: WRITING A CASE STUDY 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. c. Are there any limitations with this method? d. What instruments were used to collect data? (You may want to include some or all in the appendix. ) e. What sample(s) is/are being used? f. Over which period of time was this data collected? The Problem The Steps Taken to Address the Problem The Results The Challenges and How They were Met Beyond Results Lessons Learned Conclusion Appendices Where Can More Information on Case Studies be Found? Information on Case Study Research Adamchak, S. , et. al. (2000). A Guide to Monitoring and Evaluating Adolescent Reproductive Health Programs. Available at http://www. pathfind. org/pf/pubs/focus/guidesandtools/PDF/Part%20II. pdf. Patton, Michael Q. (2002). Qualitative Research & Evaluation Methods. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications. Stake, Robert E. (1995). The Art of Case Study Research. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications. United States General Accounting Office, Program Evaluation and Methodology Division. (1987). Case Study Evaluations. Available at http://161. 203. 16. 4/t2pbat22/132683. pdf. Yin, Robert K. (2003). Case Study Research: Design and Methods. London: Sage Publications. Examples of Case Studies Cornwall, A. and Welbourn, A. (2002). Realizing Rights: Transforming Approaches to Sexual and Reproductive Well-Being. London: Zed Books. Population Council. Quality/Calidad/Qualite series. Available at http://www. popcouncil. org/publications/qcq/default. htm. SRI International. (2001). The Organization of Learning in Community Technology Centers: Learning with Technology in Six Communities. Available at http://www. americaconnects. net/research/SRI_case_study_report. pdf. PATHFINDER INTERNATIONAL: WRITING A CASE STUDY 11 Appendix 1: Sample Informed Consent Form Key Components: †¢ Thank you †¢ Your name †¢ Purpose †¢ Confidentiality †¢ Duration †¢ How interview will be conducted †¢ Opportunity for questions †¢ Signature of consent I want to thank you for taking the time to meet with me today. My name is ________________________ and I would like to talk to you about your experiences participating in the African Youth Alliance (AYA) project. Specifically, as one of the components of our overall program evaluation we are assessing program effectiveness in order to capture lessons that can be used in future interventions. The interview should take less than an hour. I will be taping the session because I don’t want to miss any of your comments. Although I will be taking some notes during the session, I can’t possibly write fast enough to get it all down. Because we’re on tape, please be sure to speak up so that we don’t miss your comments. All responses will be kept confidential. This means that your interview responses will only be shared with research team members and we will ensure that any information we include in our report does not identify you as the respondent. Remember, you don’t have to talk about anything you don’t want to and you may end the interview at any time. Are there any questions about what I have just explained? Are you willing to participate in this interview? __________________ Interviewee __________________ Witness __________ Date ______________________________________ Legal guardian (if interviewee is under 18) 12 PATHFINDER INTERNATIONAL: SAMPLE INFORMED CONSENT FORM Pathfinder International 9 Galen Street, Suite 217 Watertown, MA 02472 USA Tel: 617-924-7200 Email: Information@pathfind. org 05/06/500.

Benjamin Cardozo Leaders program Essay

The final spot in the University of Buffalo’s graduating class of 2011 should be offered to me because I embody the values of hard work, dedication, determination, and self-discipline that are essential in succeeding as a college student and later as a professional in my field. I have always had plans for a successful future – in younger years I had thoughts of pursuing the medical field, like my sister, but have since decided that being successful means following my own interests and dreams. I have been fascinated with how things work for as long as I can remember; automotive design holds a special attraction for me. During my junior year of high school I came to the realization that adulthood and the ‘real world’ are fast approaching, and got serious about outlining my plans for the future. Now, as a graduating senior, I am on the verge of proving to everyone else what I have always known – I am going to make something BIG out of myself. After careful and diligent examination of my personal interests and values, I have decided that my optimum career choice is to be a self employed mechanical engineer. In this profession I will be able to exploit my passion for how things work, while designing my own creations – and being self employed will allow me to reach my full potential, limited only by my dream, drive, and education. Knowing that the quality of my education is essential to achieving my lifetime aspiration will continue to provide me with a hunger for the acquisition of the knowledge and experience of my professors and future student colleagues. I plan to embellish my studies of mechanical engineering with a second concentration in business management, to culminate in an M. B. A. which I believe will help me acquire the knowledge necessary to run a profitable and successful business. It is my true dream to do for the world of mechanical engineering what Bill Gates did for computing and what Sam Walton did for discount retail – to become an industrial giant through knowledge, drive, and a passion for doing what I love. The University of Buffalo needs me on campus because of my experience in leadership, through the Benjamin Cardozo Leaders program, my strong work ethic – as evidenced by my current employment, and my passion for mechanical engineering. I pledge to use this spot to the best of my ability to simultaneously increase my academic knowledge and to uphold the positive public image that the University of Buffalo portrays. My background in athletics, as well as my high school and employment experience have all increased my people skills, and I plan to hone them even further in collaborating with fellow students and being involved in mentoring programs that import to teenagers how important goals, drive, and education are in the accomplishment of great things. I believe strongly that this college will help me accomplish great things, and it is my intent to accomplish great things while I am there.

Everything You Need to Know for Your Upcoming Summer Vacation

Everything You Need to Know for Your Upcoming Summer Vacation It’s the time of year you’ve been waiting for: summer vacation! Time for you to kick back on the beach with a cold beverage and forgot about all of your responsibilities. Unfortunately, preparing for your upcoming summer vacation can be just as stressful as your normal responsibilities. Taking a vacation reduces stress and improves your overall productivity. So the last thing you need is to be stressed out and offset the positive benefits of your vacation.Fortunately, there are many approaches you can take when planning your summer vacation. You can book a cruise or tour. That way, someone else will plan everything for you. If that’s not your cup of tea, you can find a packaged deal, where expenses are lumped together. Either way, there are a lot of options for you to consider.With that said, here’s everything you need to know in order to be better prepared and lessen the stress of getting ready for summer vacation.Source: [BusinessInsider]